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What Do Antibodies Do?
Medically reviewed by Amelia MacIntyre, DOMedically reviewed by Amelia MacIntyre, DO
Antibodies are proteins that circulate in the blood and protect against foreign antigenic substances such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, chemicals, or toxins. They are Y-shaped structures with two light and two heavy protein chains attached. The tip of the antibody consists of a hypervariable region that allows different antibody types to develop, making it possible to bind to a wide range of foreign substances that may make you sick.
The role of antibodies is to support your immune system response by binding to harmful pathogens and helping eliminate them. Antibodies also have several significant clinical applications, including detecting previous infections, supporting passive immunity, treating autoimmune diseases, and aiding in diagnostic approaches.
Types of AntibodiesThere are five different types of antibodies, which are known as immunoglobulins. These antibodies differ based on their location and function and include:
IgM: The first antibody produced in response to pathogens. It is pentameric in structure (meaning it has five protein subunits), which makes it easier to bind with the pathogen at the first encounter.
IgG: The most abundant antibody found in the body. It can help to block infections caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or other disease-causing organisms. IgG is also the only immunoglobulin that can cross the placenta and protect growing infants for up to six months after birth.
IgA: This immunoglobulin helps protect mucosal surfaces, such as the gastrointestinal (GI) lining in the digestive system or respiratory lining in the lungs, from pathogens. IgA is also present in tears, saliva, breast milk, and mucus.
IgE: This antibody helps mediate allergic reactions in the body. IgE can bind to the surface of mast cells or basophils (types of white blood cells) and trigger hypersensitive reactions in response to allergens.
IgD: This type is found in only small amounts in the body, and its exact function is still unclear. Experts believe IgD acts as a B-cell receptor and may help in B-cell-mediated immune responses.
Antibodies start to develop as part of the adaptive immune response when B cells recognize pathogens (harmful cells like bacteria and viruses). After coming into contact with a pathogen, B cells form memory B cells and plasma cells. The plasma cells then produce antibodies for the specific pathogen, while memory B cells ensure protection against future attacks from the same pathogen.
For example, if you develop the flu, your memory B cells will remember the virus and understand how to attack it if you get the flu again.
How Do Antibodies Support Immune Health?Antibodies play a key role in preventing the development of diseases and supporting your immune system response when you get sick. Here's a breakdown of all their various functions:
Block bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi by binding to them
Destabilize pathogens before they interact with your body's healthy cells
Help prevent pathogens from replicating and affecting more cells
Activate the complement cascade, a group of proteins that help destroy pathogens and harmful cells
Release pro-inflammatory molecules (like cytokines) that cause inflammation to prevent pathogens from spreading more infection
While antibodies play an active role in helping your body fight and eliminate infections and diseases, they also have other clinical applications that can support your overall health. These include the following:
Encourage passive immunity: Passive immunity occurs when immunoglobulins develop in response to an emergency. Certain pathogens (like Clostridium botulinum) can begin to cause serious harm before the body carries out the natural adaptive immune response. In these cases, the passive introduction of antibodies becomes essential for preventing disease progression in a serious or quick-acting illness.
Develop monoclonal antibodies: These antibodies are synthetically produced and help treat various autoimmune disorders (such as lupus or psoriasis) and some types of cancer. Monoclonal antibody treatments can also help prevent severe lower respiratory tract infections caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in infants and young children.
Determine previous and future infections: Antibodies in your blood may signify a previous infection or immunity to a specific infection that you recently had. Some antibodies can also determine whether you have a risk of developing other illnesses in the future.
Help with diagnoses: Antibodies are often part of diagnostic tests such as immunoelectrophoresis, enzyme-linked immunofluorescent assay (ELISA), and western blot. They can bind to disease-associated proteins in your blood and tissue, transmit signals that signify their presence, and help detect specific diseases.
Antibodies are proteins that help defend your body from infections and disease by binding to harmful pathogens (like viruses and bacteria) and inactivating them. They play an important role in your immune system response when you get sick.
There are five subtypes of antibodies, all of which serve slightly different functions but ultimately support the same goal: fighting illnesses to help you improve your symptoms and overall well-being.
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6 Important Blood Tests You Should Consider Getting
Your blood work can tell you a lot about your health, revealing the truth about everything from your kidney function to your cholesterol levels. Haven't had your blood drawn in years? It's probably time to chat with your primary physician about getting it done. How often you should get your blood work analyzed depends on your age, the type of blood test and your personal health.
According to the Centers for Disease Control, most healthy adults only need to have their cholesterol tested every four to six years. Meanwhile, the organization says people should get their A1C tested at the age of 45 and then every year or two if they are pre-diabetic, or if they have risk factors for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Some tests, like hepatitis B, are only recommended once per lifetime for adults age 18 and older unless you have symptoms or are pregnant.
With all these different types of blood tests available, it can be confusing to know which you should get and when. To simplify things, we talked to two doctors who explained which blood tests the average person should consider getting, and why.
1. Complete blood count From talking fridges to iPhones, our experts are here to help make the world a little less complicated.The complete blood count routine test provides a snapshot of your body's blood production and immunity. The test measures a variety of components in your blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
Dr. Soma Mandal, a board-certified internist at Summit Health in New Providence, New Jersey, says that getting a CBC test is "recommended for individuals of all ages as part of a routine health examination, or when symptoms suggest a potential health issue."
Dr. Maria Knöbel, medical director of Medical Cert UK, agrees that this foundational test is appropriate for many patients. She says the test is ideal for anyone undergoing a routine health check-up. Still, she advises that you may want to get it if you're "experiencing symptoms like persistent fatigue, unexplained bruising or frequent infections."
A CBC blood test can indicate lots of things, including:
Mandal explains that each lab may have slight variations for what they consider "normal" test results. The ranges typically accepted as normal for adults are:
Red blood cells: 4.5-5.9 million cells per microliter (men), 4.1-5.1 million cells per microliter (women)
White blood cells: 4,500-11,000 cells per microliter
Hemoglobin: 13.8-17.2 grams per deciliter (men), 12.1-15.1 grams per deciliter (women)
Hematocrit: 40.7%-50.3% (men), 36.1%-44.3% (women)
Platelets: 150,000-450,000 platelets per microliter
From talking fridges to iPhones, our experts are here to help make the world a little less complicated. 2. Lipid panelLipids are fats and fatty substances in your blood. One type of lipid is cholesterol, which is used as a source of energy. Too much "bad" cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein or LDL) can damage your heart.
You may need to get this test if you have cardiovascular disease or other risk factors. Mandal states this test is essential for anyone "at risk of cardiovascular diseases, including those with a family history of heart disease, smokers, people with hypertension or those who are overweight."
Knöbel explains that a lipid panel measures total cholesterol and also breaks it down into HDL/LDL:
She says, "Elevated LDL levels are associated with an increased risk of heart disease, while high HDL levels are generally protective. Elevated triglycerides can also indicate a risk for heart disease and may be associated with other conditions like diabetes."
The normal parameters for a lipid panel in adults are:
Total cholesterol: Less than 200 mg/dL
LDL cholesterol: Less than 100 mg/dL
HDL cholesterol: 40 mg/dL or higher (men), 50 mg/dL or higher (women)
Triglycerides: Less than 150 mg/dL
Lourdes Balduque/Getty Images 3. Basic metabolic panelThe basic metabolic panel measures what Knöbel calls "critical aspects of your body's chemistry." This includes glucose, calcium and electrolytes such as sodium, potassium and bicarbonate. The test also looks for kidney function indicators, like blood urea nitrogen and creatinine.
Knöbel elaborates, "Glucose levels provide insight into blood sugar control. Electrolyte imbalances can reveal issues related to dehydration, kidney disease or metabolic imbalances. Abnormal calcium levels can indicate issues with bone health or parathyroid function."
BMP is often part of a routine exam. It may also be recommended for patients with diabetes or kidney disease or those at risk for these conditions.
The results of your BMP could indicate:
For adults, Mandal says the normal ranges for results of this test are:
Glucose: 70-99 mg/dL (fasting)
Calcium: 8.5-10.2 mg/dL
Sodium: 135-145 mEq/L
Potassium: 3.5-5.0 mEq/L
Bicarbonate: 23-30 mEq/L
Chloride: 96-106 mEq/L
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN): 7-20 mg/dL
Creatinine: 0.6-1.3 mg/dL
4. Hemoglobin A1CThe Hemoglobin A1C test, also called the HbA1c, is a blood test that measures your average blood sugar level over the past 2-3 months. Mandel explains that it's primarily used to diagnose and monitor diabetes and pre-diabetes. If you're overweight, have symptoms of diabetes, have a family history of diabetes or are over the age of 45, the doctor says you may also want to get this test.
A daily sugar test gives you a short-term view of your blood sugar level. On the other hand, this test is a long-term view of how well your body is managing glucose. Getting an HbA1c test could reveal a few things about your health:
Normal ranges for test results are:
Normal: Less than 5.7%
Pre-diabetes: 5.7% to 6.4%
Diabetes: 6.5% or higher
5. Thyroid function testsIf you are experiencing fatigue, weight changes, irregular heartbeat, hair loss or mood swings, you may want to get a thyroid function test. Typically prescribed only if you display symptoms such as those previously mentioned, this test measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone in your blood. Your doctors can use the results to see how well your thyroid (a small, hormone-releasing gland in the front of your throat) is functioning. Mandal tells us this test is commonly included in routine health screenings, especially in women over 60.
Your blood test may indicate:
Doctors typically consider the following normal ranges for test results in adults:
TSH levels: 0.4-4.0 mIU/L
Free T4 levels: 0.8-1.8 ng/dL
Free T3 levels: 2.3-4.2 pg/mL
6. 25-hydroxy vitamin DAccording to Mount Sinai, a hospital system in New York, some older patients can benefit from getting a 25-hydroxy test to check their vitamin D levels. People who are over the age of 65, have osteoporosis, get limited sun exposure and/or have Crohn's disease, celiac disease or ulcerative colitis may benefit from the test.
Most people get ample vitamin D from the sun. Both skin production and gut absorption of the vitamins decline as we age. It's important to find out if you don't have enough vitamin D because it helps with everything from bone health to immunity and energy levels.
The 25-hydroxy vitamin D will reveal two things:
There is some disagreement among doctors about what a healthy range is for vitamin D, but one generally accepted range is 20 and 40 ng/mL.
The bottom lineIt's always important to discuss your health and any related concerns with your doctor before requesting any type of test. Based on your personalized situation and health plan, your doctor may request blood work not on this list or say that you don't need some of the above tests.
As a general rule, many people can benefit from CBC, lipid panel, BMP and hemoglobin A1C even without any symptoms. Also, thyroid function and vitamin D tests should be considered if you experience any symptoms. If you're older, you may also want to talk to your physician about your vitamin D absorption.
If your labs are abnormal, you may need additional screening and more frequent repeat labs. If your labs are normal, these labs may only need to be repeated once a year while doing your annual exam with your primary doctor.
Types Of Respiratory Viral Infections
Maybe you've been in a room recently with someone who's coughing, but they say "I promise it's not COVID." While…
Maybe you've been in a room recently with someone who's coughing, but they say "I promise it's not COVID." While it's important to still be cautious about COVID-19, there are other viral respiratory infections that can still be passed between people.
Our bodies are always working hard to fight off infections, including those caused by viruses. While different types of viruses can affect different parts of the body, they often affect the respiratory system, which is the group of tissues and organs that allows us to breathe. The average set of lungs breathes in about 2,000 gallons of air every day, and viruses in the respiratory system can cause some of the classic symptoms of a cold or the flu.
There are two different parts of the respiratory system that can be affected by viruses: the upper and lower respiratory tracts.
The upper part of the respiratory tract includes:
— The nose
— Nasal cavities
— Mouth
— Throat
— Voice box or larynx
The lower respiratory tract includes:
— The windpipe, also known as the trachea
— Bronchi, airways that branch off the trachea that circulate air in and out of the lungs
— Lungs
[READ: A Patient's Guide to Respiratory Disease.]
Respiratory Viral Infections
There are about 200 viruses known to cause disease in humans, says pediatric nurse practitioner Maryanne Tranter, founder of The Healthy Child Concierge.
Our respiratory system is especially vulnerable to certain viruses that can cause a cold, flu and other illnesses. A viral respiratory infection refers to a virus that specifically affects the upper or lower respiratory tracts, or both.
Typically, viral infections are passed via respiratory droplets, which are microscopic drops of mostly water that are produced when someone coughs, sneezes or talks. The viruses in these droplets are generally thought to be contagious if you're within 6 feet of the person who produces them. Viruses in droplets can live on surfaces for several hours, and you can get sick from touching those surfaces.
Those droplets, if coming from someone who is sick, can immediately start to infect and multiply in our cell linings, says Dr. Sudeb Dalai, an infectious disease specialist and clinical assistant professor with the Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine at Stanford University Medical Center in Palo Alto, California.
While the viruses that affect the respiratory system almost all have a similar structure, they also are all seasonal, meaning that they emerge and make people sick during certain times of the year, Dalai says.
Viruses can affect the respiratory system differently depending on where they initially attack. For instance, when a virus affects the lungs and airways, it can make breathing harder and cause wheezing, adds Dr. Tina Q. Tan, an attending physician of infectious diseases?At Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and a professor of pediatrics at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine.
A virus that's in the nose and nasal cavities can make you feel stuffy. Sometimes, these infections can affect other parts of the body. For instance, upper respiratory viral infections also can cause a viral ear infection, Tan says. An infection can cause the eustachian tube that connects the ears and throat to become swollen or irritated, so fluid can't drain out of the ear properly, which can result in an ear infection.
There are many types of viruses that can lead to a respiratory viral infection. Four of the most common types of infections include:
— Common cold
— Flu
— COVID-19
— Respiratory syncytial virus
Common cold
The common cold is not caused by just one virus. In fact, it can be caused by hundreds of different viruses, Tan says. Some of the viruses associated with the common cold include:
— Coronaviruses. This is a large family of viruses, with one member that might be most notorious for the illness that causes COVID-19. Four types are common and cause mild to moderate respiratory infections, like the common cold.
— Enteroviruses. Infections caused by enteroviruses are more common in the summer and fall, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In addition to the common cold, the enterovirus can potentially cause other health problems, such as low oxygen in the blood and conjunctivitis (a type of eye infection), according to the Enterovirus Foundation.
— Rhinoviruses. "Rhino" as a prefix means nose, so it may be no surprise that these types of infections are thought to be the cause of 30% to 35% of all common colds, according to the National Institutes of Health.
Symptoms associated with the common cold include:
— A runny nose
— Congestion
— Cough
— A sore throat
— Feeling more tired
— A fever
— Losing your voice (laryngitis)
A cold is usually diagnosed with a history and exam performed by a health professional. However, many colds are managed at home without a formal diagnosis.
There's no cure for a cold. That's why drinking fluids, resting, staying home and using pain relievers or medicines to help your congestion as needed are usually the best way to get over a cold.
[READ: Allergies or Cold: What's the Difference?]
Flu
Like the common cold, flu isn't caused by just one type of virus. It's primarily caused by viruses called influenza type A or influenza type B. The exact virus that causes most flu in any given flu season is a usually a subtype of influenza A or B.
The most common flu symptoms include:
— A fever of 100.4 F or higher
— Chills or feeling overheated
— Congestion or a runny nose
— Cough
— Fatigue
— Headache
— Muscle ache
Not everyone who has the flu gets it diagnosed. However, those who do see a doctor for the flu may take one of several tests that help pinpoint that it's the flu, according to the CDC. The results are available in as little as 15 minutes or in a few hours, depending on the test.
Those who are at higher risk for the flu and who suspect they have it should get tested for it, the CDC advises. That's because they are more prone to flu complications. Higher-risk populations include:
— Adults age 65 and older
— Children
— People with chronic conditions, such as asthma, diabetes and heart disease
— Pregnant women
Doctors may run tests to rule out other types of infections that have symptoms similar to the flu, Dalai says.
There are antiviral treatments for the flu that can reduce the number of days you are sick and help prevent serious flu complications, such as pneumonia, the CDC reports. Additionally, rest and maintaining a good fluid intake will help.
Getting the flu vaccine each year can help lower your risk and is effective 40% to 60% of the time, according to the CDC. That percentage can vary each year. Flu vaccines are important for people of all ages, as flu can lead to death. In the 2023-2024 flu season, an estimated 44,900 people died from flu complications, the CDC reports.
[READ: Best Foods to Eat for a Cold or Flu: Expert Advice]
COVID-19
SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19 is caused by one strain of coronavirus, while other coronaviruses may cause just a common cold. Symptoms of COVID-19 usually appear within 2 to 14 days after exposure and include:
— A fever
— Chills
— Congestion or a runny nose
— Cough
— Digestive symptoms, such as diarrhea
— Fatigue
— Headache
— Loss of taste or smell
— Muscle pain
— Sore throat
You should call 911 or go to an emergency room if you or someone you know has COVID and is experiencing confusion, is unable to wake up or stay awake, has persistent chest pressure or trouble breathing or if their lips, nail beds or skin appear blue.
Treatments for COVID include two antiviral pills: nirmatrelvir tablets and ritonavir (both are Paxlovid) and molnupiravir (Lagevrio). There's also one antiviral, remdesivir (Veklury), given by IV, says Dr. Linda Yancey, an infectious disease specialist at Memorial Hermann Hospital in Houston. Your health care professional can prescribe the pills, and the IV antiviral may be given if you're in the hospital, she explains.
The federal government plans to make free COVID tests available again by the end of September 2024. You can order them through the website COVIDtests.Gov. You can use the tests through the end of the year, but there will be a limit of four tests per household.
The latest COVID booster shot became available in August of this year. The CDC recommends that everyone age 6 months and older get the new booster.
Respiratory syncytial virus
RSV is more common in children, though adults can get it as well. It resembles a cold, but the severity of RSV symptoms depends on a child's age, Tranter says. Almost all children have had an RSV infection by age 2, according to the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases.
Here's a breakdown of the symptoms of RSV, which can vary for different age groups:
— In infants younger than age 1, symptoms often include cough, difficulty breathing, fever and wheezing.
— Younger children may experience wheezing that's diagnosed as bronchiolitis, which is an inflammation of the small breathing passageways in the lungs called bronchioles. However, this doesn't mean the child has asthma. "They wheeze because their airways are already small, and the virus causes inflammation inside the airways," Tranter explains.
— Older children often experience RSV as a cold or pneumonia. If they have asthma, the virus could make it worse.
— Symptoms of RSV in adults can seem like a cold, but they can become severe and are sometimes fatal in those who are older or those who have a weakened immune system or heart disease. Among adults age 65 and over, this type of virus is thought to cause 60,000 to 160,000 hospitalizations and 6,000 to 10,000 deaths annually in the U.S., according to the NFID. That is in addition to its effect on children.
Health professionals will use a physical exam, which includes listening to the lungs, to help diagnose RSV. Other tests usually aren't done unless a complication from RSV is suspected.
The best care for RSV is liquids, rest and alleviating symptoms with steamy bathrooms and cold-mist humidifiers, Tranter says. Children who develop severe RSV bronchiolitis also may need extra oxygen support and fluids.
An RSV vaccine is available to help protect against the virus. For those on Medicare, the RSV vaccine is covered under Part D (drug coverage).
"Remember that the RSV vaccine protects not just you but also any newborns you might be around," Yancey says. "If you don't want to get it for yourself, get it for your grandbabies."
Cold vs. Flu vs. COVID
It can be confusing to know the difference between a cold versus flu versus COVID as the symptoms are similar. Here are some clues to help distinguish them, according to Yancey.
— A cold is a generic word for an upper respiratory infection.
— A cold actually can be caused by many different viruses, while the flu is caused by influenza viruses.
— Most of the time, a cold will be less serious than the flu.
— Muscle aches are more common with COVID and the flu, though they sometimes occur with a cold as well.
— Compared with the flu, people with colds usually have fevers that are lower but more sore throat and respiratory congestion.
— A runny nose and a sore throat are more common with a cold, but they can sometimes occur with COVID or the flu.
— The flu may start abruptly, while a cold starts gradually.
— Sneezing is common with a cold, less common with the flu and not typically associated with COVID.
Preventing Infections
There are some tried-and-true ways to prevent getting any type of respiratory viral infection:
1. Wash your hands frequently, for at least 20 seconds.
2. Get your recommended vaccines. Everyone should get the flu shot and the COVID booster for this year's cold and flu season, Yancey advises. Those who are over age 70, pregnant or over age 60 with health conditions like chronic heart or lung disease or should get the RSV vaccine as well.
3. Stay at home when you're sick, and test for COVID if you think it's possible you have it.
4. Cover your cough or sneeze with a tissue, and throw the tissue away. If a tissue isn't available, use your elbow to cover it, not the palm of your hand.
5. Routinely disinfect any surfaces that are touched often.
6. Follow any social distancing guidelines recommended by federal or local authorities.
7. Wear a face mask when you're sick or around crowds. "Don't be shy about wearing masks in crowded, indoor places," Yancey says. "One of the gifts of the pandemic was showing us how highly effective masking is at preventing the spread of respiratory viruses. "
8. Practice overall healthy habits, such as eating a healthy diet and getting regular exercise. This is important for everyone, but especially for those with chronic health conditions who are even more vulnerable to illness, Dalai says.
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Types of Respiratory Viral Infections originally appeared on usnews.Com
Update 09/06/24: This story was previously published at an earlier date and has been updated with new information.
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